Japanese dolls are one of the many craftmanship of Japan. The story of the different types of dolls, their meaning and use in Japan through out history.

The knowledge in this blog derives from the book Japanese Dolls, The Fascinating World of Ningyo by Alan Scott Pate.

Introduction to the World of Japanese Dolls

The Japanese word for “doll,” ningyô, literally means “human shape” or “human figure.” Ningyô have a long and fascinating history, still continuing today. Antique and vintage dolls are collected in both Japan and Western countries, admired for their uniqueness. Japanese dolls are primarily aimed at adults and designed for display rather than play, with the exception of the Ichimatsu-ningyô, which is intended for children. Read on to learn more about the various types of ningyô. There are multiple categories of Japanese dolls: 1) Hina, 2) Wood, 3) Clay, 4) Musha, 5) Play, 6) Theatrical, 7) Display, and 8) Mechanical.

NINGYO DOLLS & FABRICS

The sumptuous textiles, including silks crafted in intricate weaves and gold-laced brocades, combined with brilliantly white visages finely carved and lacquered, create visually arresting images. The garments adorning ningyô are almost invariably made of silk.

The Golden Age of the Japanese doll coincided with the rapid development of Japan’s textile industry, traditionally centered in the Nishijin district of Kyoto. Kyoto also served as Japan’s traditional doll manufacturing hub, facilitating close collaboration between these two sectors. The rich brocades and complex weaves seen on ningyô had long been considered luxury imports from China. By the early Edo period, however, Nishijin weavers had mastered these techniques and applied them to a variety of woven products, including Buddhist altar cloths, luxury garments for nobility and wealthy merchants, and costumes for sophisticated ningyô.

As a result, ningyô became as much a matter of textiles as of carving. The kinran brocades, utilizing gold leaf-backed paper, various gauze and compound weaves, and gold-wrapped thread embroidery, were prominent in the development of Edo-period fashion and are abundantly displayed in ningyô of that era. For some examples from the 17th and early 18th centuries, ningyô can serve as an excellent resource for textile studies as well.

GOFUN MATERIAL

Many are struck by the unusual whiteness of ningyô faces, which possess an almost porcelain-like sheen. It is generally assumed that the faces, hands, and sometimes entire bodies are made of a high-fired ceramic. In reality, this singular aspect of Japanese ningyô comes from a specific material known as gofun. Gofun is a paste made from calcium carbonate powder derived from pulverized oyster shells, combined with a nikawa (animal-based glue binder), which is applied in layers to the core surface. The oyster shell component allows each layer to be burnished to a high sheen. Applying multiple layers results in a deep and lustrous white, unlike any other material. Gofun also serves as a protective shell, durable over time yet completely water-soluble, easily wiped away with a damp cloth. Its plastic qualities allow for some modeling flexibility.

HINA DOLLS

The term hina means "small and lovely." Hina-ningyô dolls originated in the 17th century, measuring between 13-15 cm high, and became popular among the military and imperial elite, prompting wholesalers and doll makers to create various sizes and designs by the mid-18th century. Each generation introduced new styles reflecting changing tastes and demographics.

A festival related to hina dolls, Hinamatsuri, continues to be widely celebrated today. It began over 1,000 years ago as the Peach Festival and later became associated with the tradition of making simple paper dolls called hitogata, which were set free in rivers to carry away sickness and misfortune.

Today, it is common for grandparents to gift a hina doll set when a girl is born. This set typically consists of five to seven tiers, starting with the Emperor and Empress on the first platform. The tradition of displaying hina dolls on an altar in homes did not emerge until the Edo period.

The altar is usually arranged in five to seven tiers, with the following accepted positioning:

• Platform 1: Reserved for the Emperor and Empress dolls, flanked by a miniature gilded folding screen.

• Platform 2: Reserved for the san-nin kanjo, three ladies-in-waiting who serve drinks to the male and female dolls.

• Platform 3: Reserved for the go-nin bayashi, court musicians who each hold a different instrument.

• Platform 4: Designated for dolls representing court ministers or bodyguards, as well as objects representing gifts for the imperial couple.

• Platform 5: Reserved for dolls representing palace guards, flanked by a miniature mandarin orange tree (left) and a sakura cherry tree (right).

If a sixth or seventh tier is included, it typically displays household items from the period, such as furniture and mirrors. Altars from Kyoto often feature miniature kitchens and cooking utensils, while Tokyo-made altars frequently have additional tiers showcasing a range of lavish furnishings.

MUSHA DOLLS

Musha dolls are a subcategory of hina-ningyô, also known as warrior and hero dolls. They serve not only as decoration but also trace back to purifying and talismanic practices from China, believed to protect and purify households concerning health. In Japanese belief systems, spirits of deceased heroes or individuals of strong character can continue to impact daily life long after their deaths.

DISPLAY DOLLS

Saga-ningyo are among the rarest and most significant forms of ningyô from the Edo period and are now the most coveted type of doll in Japan. They are carved wooden figures, lacquered in rich colors, with gofun faces. Another type of display doll is Gosho-ningyo, meaning palace dolls or Zudai-ningyo, known as big-headed dolls. Gosho dolls possess a child-like appearance, with extraordinarily large heads and dwarf bodies covered in gofun paste. They were traditionally exchanged as gifts to convey auspicious wishes and protective blessings within the court.

A third type is Isho-ningyo, or costume dolls, focusing on textiles and popular culture. Isho dolls are crafted for enjoyment and appreciation, representing luxury and aesthetic pleasure linked to contemporary fashion, popular literature, and theater. Their themes range from dramatic Kabuki to elegant beauties in rich brocade robes. Isho dolls emphasize clothing, showcasing Japan's renowned textile techniques, including figured brocades with dense patterning and interwoven strips of reflective gold- and silver-backed paper threads. Fine supplemental embroidery creates intricate scenes on silk kimonos using various weaving and dyeing methods.

The fourth subcategory, Iki-ningyo, is known for their hyper-realistic appearance. Originating in the late 19th century, Iki dolls were typically displayed at temple fairs in the Edo/Tokyo area.

WOOD DOLLS

Kamo-ningyo, named after the important Kamo Shrine in Kyoto, are miniature dolls (2.5 - 5 cm) that are among the most beloved and collected early dolls. Inspired by the daily life of Kyoto during the Edo period, Kamo dolls are made of wood covered with textiles. A special technique called Mokune is used to apply textiles along the wood contours, pressed tightly to create a sense of volume.

Nara-ningyo represent the star of wood dolls, originating from the Kasuga Shrine in Nara, known as the lantern shrine. Made using itti-bori (one-knife cut), their carving lines are left visible as a central aesthetic element, making them considered art dolls due to their sophistication. The themes found in Nara dolls are often derived from Noh theater.

Kokeshi-ningyo are popular among tourists, characterized by a round head, narrow tall body, and minimalistic paint decoration. They are seen as the most primitive and simple of all ningyô, celebrating minimalism. Originally created for children, Kokeshi dolls are categorized into two types: Dento (traditional) with 11 regional styles and Sosaku (creative), which feature modern themes and mixed media.

The language of Kokeshi dolls can be recognized by the following:

• Body Shape: Seven types, including slender, cylindrical, tapering, thick, narrow-waisted, shouldered, and flare-bottomed.

• Body Décor: Designs include giant chrysanthemums, stacked flowers, simulated wood grain, and kimono depictions.

• Construction: Most are carved in two separate parts (head and body), though some are executed in a single piece.

• Top of Head: Decoration varies, with styles like radiating circles known as “janome.”

• Eye Shape: Seven basic types, including double-lidded, single-lidded, and whale’s eye.

• Nose Shape: Six principal types, including long, split, and drumstick.

• Hairstyle: Most feature similar hairstyles, often with front and side bangs.

CLAY DOLLS

Clay dolls are considered the ancestors of all ningyô in Japan, with roots tracing back to the Jomon period (12,000–250 BCE). They served various purposes, including rituals, play, festivals, and display. Clay dolls can be found in every province, each showcasing distinctive characteristics.

Fushimi-ningyo, known from the Kyoto area, are powerful talismans. Simple clay forms, low-fired and cold-painted, represent beautiful women, foxes (symbols of Inari), horses, Buddhist gods, and even Kabuki actors. By the mid-19th century, they developed into collectible items due to their artistic significance and beauty. By the end of Edo period there were over 100 manufacturing centers producing them.

Hakata-ningyô originate from the southern island of Kyushu, specifically the Hakata area in Fukuoka. Craftsmen in this region have utilized the fine clay available here for centuries to create these distinctive clay dolls. Today, Hakata dolls are celebrated for their sophisticated and elegant depictions of bijin (beautiful women).

Throughout the 20th century, the color palette evolved from vibrant primary shades to softer pastel tones. Contemporary designs often draw inspiration from Noh and Kabuki theater, as well as themes of beauty, popular lore, religion, and childhood. At the Kyoto Museum, visitors can experience a fascinating collection of 24 Hakata dolls created by local painter Yoshikawa Kanpo. His work reflects a deep interest in Japanese textiles and culture, with the commissioned dolls showcasing early costumes, hairstyles, and women from different social classes.

MECHANICAL DOLLS

The Jewel in the Crown of Ningyo Collections

Karakuri-ningyô are captivating mechanical devices, varying in size, that come to life to entertain audiences through dancing, antics, or reenacting brief scenes in theaters and temples across Japan. These dolls are among the most intriguing and elusive of all ningyô, embodying the spirit of the Edo period with their exquisite craftsmanship, technical ingenuity, and a touch of whimsy.

Typically small in stature, karakuri dolls feature gofun-covered faces and are adorned with silk textiles, often topped with a cap known as zukin. Their origins trace back to the Kamakura period (1185-1333) in Nara, where they were crafted by monks as gifts for the Obon festivities but later gained popularity among the nobility.

Most surviving karakuri-ningyô were designed for private entertainment, delighting families and guests with repetitive actions, sometimes accompanied by music. The bases of these dolls are often painted with scenes depicting cranes and turtles, bamboo, and pine.

Karakuri can be categorized into four main types:

1. Musicians: The most common, featuring performers like drummers.

2. Transformations: Dolls that perform “magic” tricks.

3. Animal Scenes: Often showcasing birds, with roosters being a frequent choice.

4. Performers: Typically solo figures, most often dancers or characters engaged in games.

THEATRICAL DOLLS

Bunraku-ningyo are puppets accompanied by music to communicate tales of deep meaning – puppet theater is centuries old. The most mysterious of all doll forms representing the highest complexity and deep layers of all. It began with simple hand puppets used in didactic performances at shrines coming alive on stage filled with emotions and power from the dramas acting pathos and agony. Humans as operators give them movement and up to 3 operators can be required per puppet as this is the case in a classical Bunraku show. Not all bunraku performances are the same/identical, each region varies.

The head of the bunraku-ningyo are central element and quite detailed refined depending on the character – 45 different heads. Some have movable eyes, eyebrows, mouths and mechanisms in the neck and have various incorporated abilities depending on the character and story; for example a head can be split in half following the stroke of a sword. Bunraku can be between 50-100cm height covered with beautiful handcrafted silk textiles with accessories such as holding a fan, a letter or a sword.

Bunraku-ningyo are puppets accompanied by music, designed to communicate tales of deep meaning—puppet theater is centuries old. These are the most mysterious of all doll forms, representing the highest complexity and the deepest layers of storytelling. It began with simple hand puppets used in didactic performances at shrines, coming alive on stage filled with emotions and the power of dramatic pathos and agony. Human operators give them movement, and up to three operators can be required per puppet, as is the case in a classical Bunraku show. Not all Bunraku performances are identical; each region varies.

The heads of Bunraku-ningyo are a central element, detailed and refined depending on the character, with up to 45 different heads. Some have movable eyes, eyebrows, mouths, and mechanisms in the neck, incorporating various abilities based on the character and story. For example, a head can be split in half following the stroke of a sword. Bunraku puppets typically range from 50 to 100 cm in height, covered with beautiful handcrafted silk textiles and accessories, such as fans, letters, or swords.

Takeda-ningyo

The inspiration for Takeda dolls comes from the actors of Edo Kabuki, which arose in the first half of the 19th century. Takeda dolls share similarities with the previously described Isho-ningyo, featuring a great emphasis on facial expressions and richly decorated textiles that coexist with energetic and dramatic poses. These dolls are characterized by blue feet with upturned big toes, linked to the Buddhist symbol of authority, based on a black wooden box.

Mostly male figures are produced, while female figures are often tall, with sophisticated expressions, wearing densely embroidered robes made of gold thread and brocade weaves. Collars, trim, and even entire coats can be crafted from velvet textile (birodo), usually in black, though occasionally in green or brown. When purchasing Takeda dolls, it’s important to check the condition, rarity, size, and the quality of facial rendering.

PLAY DOLLS

Ichimatsu-ningyo is Japan’s most renowned doll ambassador. A notable example of this status occurred in 1927 when Japan sent 58 play dolls to the U.S. as ambassadors of goodwill, known as Friendship Dolls. During the Taisho period (1912-1926), the greatest doll makers created Ichimatsu dolls that reflected the evolving tastes and needs of Japanese society. Hirata Goyo is the most celebrated artist associated with the creation of these dolls. Ichimatsu dolls also became popular wedding gifts in pairs.

This type of ningyo represents a child aged 5 to 7 years old. The female doll is dressed in a furisode kimono, while the male doll wears hakama trousers. The furisode kimono is typically dyed using the yuzen technique, showcasing a rich variety of intricate patterns, often including family crests. Both dolls share certain characteristics, such as human hair, glass eyes, and a height of up to 81 cm.

Moreover, there are differences depending on where the dolls were manufactured. For example, dolls produced in larger cities were crafted from wood, featuring peg joints at the legs to allow movement. In contrast, dolls from smaller prefectural towns often had fabric covering their bodies with only a partial wooden core, and their legs were hinged instead of having peg joints. Another distinguishing feature is seen in their right hands: city dolls typically have a closed fist, while prefectural dolls have open hands.

During the Meiji era, postcards depicted children carrying play dolls on their backs or changing their clothing. Additionally, unmarried childless women, especially among the wealthy, often owned such dolls, treating them almost like real children. Today, Ichimatsu dolls remain extraordinarily popular in Japan, both as new creations and as antiques or vintage pieces. The quality of a doll is usually determined by the success or failure of its facial rendering. Both expensive and more affordable versions are available, depending on the materials used; some play dolls even incorporate sound gadgets within their bodies.

My own display doll

During my visit to Kyoto in autumn 2019, I was fortunate to find an antique display doll in a small shop near the Gion area. I named her Aya; she is a Maiko, as indicated by her hair decoration. Approximately 160 years old, she wears a silk ofurisode kimono, characterized by its long sleeves, adorned with a beautiful floral pattern, along with an obi embroidered with silk threads.